16th and 18th CENTURY THE IMPACT OF CHANGES INSOCIO-ECONOMIC STRUCTURE ON FISCAL STRUCTURE INOTTOMAN EMPIRE
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16. ve 18. Yüzyıllarda Sosyo-Ekonomik Yapıdaki Değişimlerin Osmanlı’nın Mali Yapısına Etkisi
Yazar(lar): Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza GÖKBUNAR, Doç. Dr. Alparslan UĞUR
Bu eser, yükseliş döneminin ardından 16.–18. yüzyıllarda Osmanlı’nın mali sisteminde ortaya çıkan krizleri; tımar düzeninin çözülmesi, bütçe açıklarının artması, savaş teknolojisindeki değişimle merkezî maaşlı ordunun büyümesi, Fiyat Devrimi ve akçe tağşişleri gibi kırılganlıklarıyla birlikte bütüncül biçimde inceler. Metin, tımar–zeamet–has üçlüsünün finansal dengesinin bozulmasını, uzun savaşlar ve askerî dönüşümün bütçe üzerindeki yükünü, para sistemindeki çözülmeyi ve bunun ücretliler ile esnaf üzerindeki toplumsal etkilerini tarihsel verilerle tartışır. Ayrıca nüfus yapısındaki değişim, doğal afetler, Celâlî isyanları, vakıfların merkezî vergi gelirine etkisi, tüketim kalıplarındaki dönüşüm gibi sosyo-ekonomik etkenlerin mali yapıyı nasıl sarstığını gösterir. Bu sarsıntılara verilen kurumsal yanıtlar olarak iltizam, malikâne, tevzihane, avarızın muntazam vergiye dönüşmesi ve yeni vergi düzenlemeleri ayrıntılandırılır; süreç içinde ayanlığın bir güç odağına evrilmesi de açıklanır. Çalışma, kısa vadeli nakit ihtiyacını gideren bu tedbirlerin ekonomi-siyaset dengesindeki yan etkilerini ve uzun dönemli mali çözülmeyi nasıl derinleştirdiğini sergiler. (Eser İngilizce kaleme alınmıştır.)
Okuyucu Kitlesi:
Osmanlı iktisat ve maliye tarihi araştırmacıları; iktisat tarihi, kamu maliyesi ve vergi tarihi çalışanlar; demografi ve siyasal tarih alanındaki akademisyenler; lisansüstü öğrenciler.
Anahtar Kelimeler:
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu; 16.–18. yüzyıllar; tımar sistemi; iltizam–malikâne; Fiyat Devrimi; tağşiş; bütçe açıkları; Celâlî isyanları; ayanlık; vakıflar; nüfus değişimi; savaş teknolojisi.
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Title: 16th and 18th Century: The Impact of Changes in Socio-Economic Structure on Fiscal Structure in the Ottoman Empire
Authors: Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza GÖKBUNAR, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alparslan UĞUR
Written to contribute to the international literature, this book analyzes Ottoman fiscal crises (16th–18th c.) by linking socio-economic shifts to institutional change. It charts the breakdown of the timar regime, the emergence of chronic budget deficits, the rise of a central salaried army with firearm technology, the Price Revolution, and coin debasements that undermined the monetary system and eroded real incomes. The narrative then connects population change, natural disasters, Celali rebellions, the revenue-reducing role of foundations, and shifts in consumption patterns to mounting fiscal stress. As policy responses, the book details the dissemination of iltizam (tax-farm), the malikane and tevzihane arrangements, the conversion of avarız into regular taxation, new tax regulations, and the subsequent rise of ayan as a local power—showing how short-term cash fixes often deepened long-run fiscal disintegration.
Target Readership:
Scholars of Ottoman economic and fiscal history; researchers in economic history, public finance, and tax history; historians of population and politics; graduate students.
Keywords:
Ottoman Empire; 16th–18th centuries; timar system; iltizam/malikane; Price Revolution; debasement; budget deficits; Celali uprisings; ayan; foundations; demographic change; military technology.
📝 Kitap İçeriği/Book Content
- CONTENTS PREFACE …………………………………………………………………i
- INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………1
- CHAPTER1
- OTTOMAN FISCAL AND ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
- FROM THE 16TH TO THE 18TH CENTURY I. Deteriorating Tımar System ………………………………………………5
- II. Increasing Budget Deficits ………………………………………………10
- A. Long Lasting Wars ……………………………………………………10
- B. Change in the Military Structure …………………………………13
- III. Price Revolution …………………………………………………………15
- A. The Causes of the Price Revolution ……………………………15
- B. The Impact of Price Revolutions …………………………………16
- IV. Adulteration: The Collapse of the Ottoman Monetary System ………………………………………21
- A. Causes of Money Adulteration ……………………………………21
- B. Money Adulteration Practices and Consequences …………23
- C. Borrowing …………………………………………………………………25
- CHAPTER2
- CHANGES IN THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
- FROM THE 16th TO THE 18th CENTURIES I. Change of Consumption Patterns ………………………………………28
- II. The Reducing Effect of Foundations on Central
- Administration Tax Revenues …………………………………………30
- III. Changes in War Techniques and Increase in Defense Expenditures ………………………………34
- IV. Effects of Natural Disasters …………………………………………37
- V. Change in Population Structure ………………………………………40
- A. Population Changes in the Ottoman Empire in the 15th and 16th Centuries ……………………………………40
- B. Population of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th and 18th Centuries ……………………………………45
- VI. Celali Riots ………………………………………………………………49
- A. The Causes of the Celali Riots ……………………………………51
- B. Behaviors of Administrators ………………………………………51
- 1. Sloppy Distribution of Tımars and Government Repossession of Some Tımars ………………………………53
- 2. Price Increases and Deterioration of Economic Structure ………………………………………………55
- 3. Increasing Taxes and Imposition of New Taxes………56
- 4. Increasing Number of Unemployed …………………………59
- 5. Transition from Tımar System to Iltizam System ……61
- 6. Assignments from the Center …………………………………63
- C. Consequences of the Celali Riots ………………………………64
- 1. Safety Problem ………………………………………………………64
- 2. Inevitable Migrations ……………………………………………66
- 3. Deteriorating Tımar: The Process of Dispossession and the Tendency to Set Up a Farm …69
- 4. Inability to Collect Tax Revenues ……………………………72
- CHAPTER3
- IMPACT OF SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGES: NEW
- FISCAL INSTITUTIONS AND PROBLEMS I. Dissemination of the Iltizam System …………………………………75
- A. Implementation of the Iltizam System …………………………76
- B. Problems of the Iltizam System …………………………………79
- II. Collection of Avarız Taxes in the Form of Regular Taxes …84
- III. Development of the Tevzihane System ……………………………88
- IV. Use of Malikane System in Tax Collection ……………………93
- A. Implementation of the Malikane System ………………………94
- B. Problems of the Malikane System ………………………………96
- C. Consequences of the Malikane System …………………………99
- V. New Taxes and Tax Regulations ……………………………………102
- VI. A New Social Class: Ayans …………………………………………108
- 1. Formation of the Ayanlık Institution ………………………108
- 2. Effects of the Ayanlık Institution ……………………………111
- 3. The Problematic of the Ayanlık Institution ……………114
- VII. Fiscal Solutions to Socioeconomic Changes …………………116
- CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………123
- REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………127